Structure and kind of Anumana

Anumana in Logical reasoning

Anumana is the second source of valid knowledge according to Nyaya philosophy. It is indirect or mediate source of knowledge. Anumana is defined as knowledge of an object(Lingi) due to previous knowledge of some mark Linga(Middle term or Hetu) to that something else under an invariable relation(Vyapti) that exist between them.

In Indian Logic the Anumana or inference is made up of following.

1)Sadhya(Major term)

Sadhya refers to the predicate or the conclusion that you want to prove through an inference. 

2)Paksha(Minor term)

Paksha is the minor term that shows the subject of the conclusion

3)Hetu(Middle term)

Hetu is the evidence that present to establish the connection between the subject (paksha) and the predicate (sadhya). 

VYAPTI(Invariable relation)

VYAPTI is invariable relation of the middle term with the major term is called Vapti. It is the term often used in Indian philosophy, particularly in Nyaya philosophy. It refers to the concomitance or invariable concomitance between the hetu (reason) and the sadhya (probandum) in a syllogism. The presence of middle term in the minor term is called Pakshadharmata.

Structure of Anumana

1)Pratijina(Preposition):This is thesis or initial proposition. It is the logical statement which is to be pro

Example: This hill has fire.

2)Hetu( Reason): It is the reason or ground for establishment of proposition.

Example: Because it has smoke.

3)Udaharan(Illustration): It illustrate the connection between the Pratijina and the hetu

Example: whatever there is a smoke, there is fire, in the kitchen.

4)Upanaya(Application): It is used to strengthen the argument by showing a similar relation in a different context.

Example: This hill has smoke.

5)Nigamana( Conclusion): The conclusion or Nigamana is the final result of the argument.

Example: Hence there is a fire at the hill.

Classification of Anumana

A)Psychological classification

1)Svartha anumana

 It refers to Inference for oneself or self-inference. It is a method of gaining knowledge through inference based on one's own observations.

2)Pararth anumana

It refers to inference for others. It draws the  conclusions for the benefit of others, not just for oneself. 

B) Classification  based on nyaya darshana 

As per the Nyaya philosophy an inference is of three types Purvavat, Sheshavat and samanyato drshta anumana. This classification based on the relationship that exist between karana and karya.

1) Purvavat anumana

When we infer the unperceived effect from perceived cause we have Purvavat anumana. (Cause and effect relation).

2)Sheshavat anumana

When we infer the unperceived cause from perceived effect we have Sheshavat anumana(Effect and Cause relation).

Samanyatodrshta anumana

When inference is based not on causation but on uniformity of co-existence is called samanyato drshta.

C) Classification based on tarka sangrah.

1)Kevalanvayi anumana

It is based on the hetu which is positively related to the sadhya.

2)Kevalavyatireki

When the hetu is negatively related to major term it is called Kevalavyatireki.

3)Anvayavyatireki

When the hetu is both positively and negatively related to Sadhya.

FALLICIES OF INFERENCE

Fallacy refers to faulty reasoning and inference means conclusion based upon reasoning, so the fallacies of inference are the certain kind of defects in reasoning that makes a statement invalid. In indian logic a fallacy is called as HETVABHASA. It means middle term appers to be a reason (Hetu) but not a valid reason.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MIDDLE TERM

1) It must be present in minor term.

2)It must be present in all positive instance in which the major term is present.

3) It must be absent in all negative instance in which the major term is absent.

4) It must be non compatible with minor term.

5) It must be qualified by the absence of counter acting reason which leads to contradictory conclusions.

Following are the five kind of Fallacies of LInference or HETVABHASA.

 1)Asiddha: This is the fallacy of unproved middle term.

2)Savyabhicara: This is the fallacy of irregular middle term.

3)Satpratipaksa: When there are two contradictory middle term are available, Here the middle term is contradicted by another middle term called satpratipaksa.

4)Baddhita: It is the non-inferentially contradict middle term

5)Viruddha:(contradictory reason): The reason contradicts established truths or other accepted premises.

Studying and identifying hetvabhasa is crucial in Indian logical systems to ensure that arguments are valid and sound. This concept is fundamental in the Nyaya school of philosophy and plays a significant role in discussions within this tradition.